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2001 WHO classification of hepatic hydatid cysts

The 2001 World Health Organization (WHO) classification of hepatic hydatid cysts is used to assess the stage of hepatic hydatid cyst on ultrasound and is useful in deciding the appropriate management for it depending on the stage of the cyst. This classification was proposed by the WHO in 2001 a...

5-F risk factors for cholelithiasis (mnemonic)

The 5-F rule refers to risk factors for the development of cholelithiasis in the event of upper abdominal pain: fair: more prevalent in the Caucasian population 1 fat: BMI >30 female fertile: one or more children forty: age ≥40 cholelithiasis can occur in young patients with a positive fam...

AAST injury scoring scales

The American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST) injury scoring scales are the most widely accepted and used system of classifying and categorizing traumatic injuries. Injury grade reflects severity, guides management, and aids in prognosis. Currently (early 2019), 32 different injury s...

AAST liver injury scale

The AAST (American Association for the Surgery of Trauma) liver injury scale, most recently revised in 2018, is the most widely used liver injury grading system 3. The 2018 update incorporates "vascular injury" (i.e. pseudoaneurysm, arteriovenous fistula) into the imaging criteria for visceral ...

Abdominal and pelvic anatomy

Abdominal and pelvic anatomy encompasses the anatomy of all structures of the abdominal and pelvic cavities. This anatomy section promotes the use of the Terminologia Anatomica, the global standard for correct gross anatomical nomenclature.

Abdominal compartment syndrome

Abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) is the life-threatening clinical state of increased intra-abdominal compartment pressure (IAP). Radiological diagnosis is difficult and usually raised when a collection of imaging findings are present in the appropriate clinical setting or if the signs on seq...

Abdominal distension (mnemonic)

A mnemonic for causes of abdominal distension (6 Fs) is: F: fat F: fluid F: flatus F: feces F: fetus F: fulminant mass

Abdominal radiology for students (curriculum)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Abdominal radiology curriculum for medical students is broadly split into content that refers to imaging (the test and findings) and conditions that are considered key for this stage of training. Some non-abdominal conditi...

Abdominal surface anatomy

Abdominal surface anatomy can be described when viewed from in front of the abdomen in 2 ways: divided into 9 regions by two vertical and two horizontal imaginary planes divided into 4 quadrants by single vertical and horizontal imaginary planes These regions and quadrants are of clinical imp...

Abernethy malformation

Abernethy malformations are rare vascular anomalies of the splanchnic venous system. They consist of congenital portosystemic shunts and result from persistence of the embryonic vessels. Epidemiology Type I malformations are thought to occur only in females, while type II have a male predomin...

Abscess

Abscesses are focal confined collections of suppurative inflammatory material and can be thought of as having three components 1: a central core consisting of necrotic inflammatory cells and local tissue peripheral halo of viable neutrophils surrounded by a 'capsule' with dilated blood vessel...

Accessory gallbladder

Accessory gallbladders are a rare anatomical variant occurring in 0.03% of cases (approximately 1 in 3000 people). They can arise from either the left or right hepatic ducts or both. Accessory gallbladders arise from a bifid diverticulum of the hepatic duct in the 5th or 6th week of development ...

Accessory right inferior hepatic vein

An accessory right inferior hepatic vein is the most common variation of the hepatic veins. It is present in up to 48% of the population and drains the posterior part of the right lobe (mainly segments 6 and 7) directly into the inferior vena cava. Variations in hepatic vascular anatomy are pa...

Acquired hepatocerebral degeneration

Acquired hepatocerebral degeneration is an uncommon irreversible extrapyramidal neurodegenerative condition encountered in patients with cirrhotic chronic liver disease, resulting in widespread cerebral, basal ganglia and cerebellar damage. Terminology Acquired hepatocerebral degeneration is ...

Acute abdominal pain

Acute abdominal pain is a common acute presentation in clinical practice. It encompasses a very broad range of possible etiologies and diagnoses, and imaging is routinely employed as the primary investigative tool in its modern management. Terminology A subgroup of patients with acute abdomina...

Acute acalculous cholecystitis

Acute acalculous cholecystitis refers to the development of cholecystitis in a gallbladder either without gallstones or with gallstones where they are not the contributory factor. It is thought to occur most often due to biliary stasis and/or gallbladder ischemia. Epidemiology Acute acalculous...

Acute cholangitis

Acute cholangitis, or ascending cholangitis, is a form of cholangitis and refers to the acute bacterial infection of the biliary tree. It is a condition with high mortality that necessitates emergent biliary decompression. Clinical presentation The classical presentation is the Charcot triad ...

Acute cholecystitis

Acute cholecystitis refers to the acute inflammation of the gallbladder. It is the primary complication of cholelithiasis and the most common cause of acute pain in the right upper quadrant (RUQ). Clinical presentation Constant right upper quadrant pain that can radiate to the right shoulder. ...

Acute cholecystitis (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Acute cholecystitis refers to the acute inflammation of the gallbladder. It is the primary complication of cholelithiasis and the most common cause of acute pain in the right upper quadrant (RUQ). Reference article This i...

Acute fatty liver of pregnancy

Acute fatty liver of pregnancy (AFLP) is a rare pregnancy-associated condition that tends to manifest in the 3rd trimester of pregnancy or early postpartum period. Epidemiology The estimated incidence is at around 1:7000-20,000 births. Clinical presentation Patients may present with nausea,...

Acute hepatitis

Acute hepatitis occurs when the liver suffers an injury with a resulting inflammatory reaction. The cause of the injury can happen in multiple different ways, and imaging findings are often non-specific. Acute hepatitis is a clinical diagnosis and a normal imaging appearance of the liver does no...

Acute liver failure

Acute liver failure (ALF), also known as fulminant hepatic failure, refers to sudden severe liver dysfunction from injury without underlying chronic liver disease (CLD), although sometimes it presents as decompensation of an unknown chronic liver disease. Epidemiology Acute liver failure is r...

Acute necrotic collection

Acute necrotic collections (ANCs) are an early, local complication of necrotizing pancreatitis. Terminology The following are the latest terms according to the updated Atlanta classification to describe fluid collections associated with acute pancreatitis 1,2: fluid collections in interstitia...

Acute pancreatitis

Acute pancreatitis (plural: pancreatitides) is an acute inflammation of the pancreas and is a potentially life-threatening condition. The diagnosis of acute pancreatitis is made by fulfilling two of the following three criteria 8: acute onset of persistent, severe epigastric pain (i.e. pain co...

Acute pancreatitis (summary)

This is a basic article for medical students and other non-radiologists Acute pancreatitis refers to acute inflammation of the pancreas and is a potentially life-threatening condition. Reference article This is a summary article; read more in our article on acute pancreatitis. Summary anato...

Acute peripancreatic fluid collection

Acute peripancreatic fluid collections (APFC) are an early complication of acute pancreatitis that usually develop in the first four weeks. After four weeks, the term pseudocysts is used. The absence of necrosis differentiates APFCs from acute necrotic collections (ANC), that is, APFCs occur in ...

Aflatoxins

Aflatoxins are naturally-occurring mycotoxins that are produced by Aspergillus species, especially Aspergillus flavus. They are acutely toxic and carcinogenic. Acute exposure High-level aflatoxin exposure can result in acute aflatoxicosis with acute hepatic necrosis, leading to cirrhosis, and ...

Agenesis (general)

Agenesis (plural: ageneses) is a medical term that refers to failure of an organ to grow or develop during the embryological period. Some examples are: renal agenesis thyroid agenesis uterine agenesis lung agenesis cerebellar agenesis agenesis of pericardium corpus callosum agenesis age...

Agenesis of the left hepatic lobe

Agenesis of the left hepatic lobe is a rare variation in liver anatomy. It is clinically asymptomatic and discovered during imaging or surgery. Radiographic features absence of the left hepatic lobe (left of the falciform ligament, Couinaud segments II and III) absence of left hepatic artery,...

Agenesis of the right hepatic lobe

Agenesis of the right hepatic lobe is a rare variation in liver anatomy. Radiographic features absence of the right hepatic lobe absence of right hepatic artery, right portal vein, and right hepatic biliary system compensatory hypertrophy of the left hepatic lobe and caudate lobe possible r...

AIDS cholangiopathy

AIDS cholangiopathy refers to an acalculous, secondary opportunistic cholangitis that occurs in AIDS patients as a result of immunosuppression. Pathology Characterized by multiple irregular strictures essentially indistinguishable from primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC). There are four path...

Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency

Alpha-1-antitrypsin (A1AT) deficiency is a hereditary metabolic disorder and is the most common genetic cause of emphysema and metabolic liver disease in children. It results in the unopposed action of neutrophil elastase and subsequent severe basal panlobular emphysema and respiratory symptoms....

Alpha fetoprotein

Alpha fetoprotein (AFP) is an important plasma protein synthesized by the yolk sac and fetal liver. In adults its main utility is as a tumor marker, primarily for hepatocellular carcinoma or teratoma. Functionally it is the fetal homologue of albumin i.e. it acts as a major carrier protein in th...

Alveolar echinococcosis

Alveolar echinococcosis, also referred as hepatic alveolar echinococcosis or E. alveolaris, is a more aggressive and invasive form of hepatic hydatid disease caused by Echinococcus multilocularis. It mimics a slow-growing tumor, as in contrast to E. granulosus it does not form a well defined enc...

Amiodarone hepatotoxicity

Amiodarone hepatotoxicity is one of the complications that can occur with amiodarone therapy. Clinical presentation In the majority of patients, it is discovered incidentally during routine testing of liver biochemistry and rarely do the hepatic effects develop into symptomatic liver injury o...

Amoebic hepatic abscess

Amoebic hepatic abscesses are a form of hepatic abscess resulting from Entamoeba histolytica infection. Epidemiology Hepatic abscess is the most common extraintestinal form of E. histolytica infection 6. Although the causative pathogen is found worldwide, it is endemic to the Middle East and ...

Ampulla of Vater

The ampulla of Vater is a conical structure at the confluence of the common bile duct (CBD) and the main pancreatic duct that protrudes at the major duodenal papilla into the medial aspect of the descending duodenum. The entire structure is encased by smooth muscle fibers that compose the sphinc...

Ampullary adenocarcinoma

Ampullary adenocarcinomas are rare biliary tumors arising from the distal biliary epithelium at the ampulla of Vater. Although classically presenting on imaging with the double duct sign, the tumor itself may be occult or of limited characterization imaging. Epidemiology These are rare tumo...

Ampullary tumor

The term ampullary tumor generally refers to either benign or malignant neoplasms that arise from the glandular epithelium of the ampulla of Vater, including 1: ampullary adenoma (adenoma of ampulla of Vater) ampullary carcinoma (carcinoma of ampulla of Vater) According to some authors, ampul...

Amylase

Amylase is widely employed as a marker of acute pancreatitis and a significant elevation is diagnostic. Physiology α-amylase is a digestive enzyme that is predominantly secreted by the acinar cells of the exocrine pancreas. It is also secreted by the salivary glands. Pancreatic amylase is enco...

Anatomy curriculum

The anatomy curriculum is one of our curriculum articles and aims to be a collection of articles that represent the core anatomy knowledge for radiologists and imaging specialists. General anatomy Neuroanatomy Head and neck anatomy Thoracic anatomy Abdominal and pelvic anatomy Spinal anat...

Aneurysms of the portal venous system

Aneurysms of the portal vein are extremely rare and represent only 3% of all aneurysms of the venous system. Clinical presentation Most patients are asymptomatic but may present with nonspecific abdominal pain as a major symptom 2-4. Pathology Both congenital and acquired causes have been pr...

Anomalous pancreaticobiliary junction

An anomalous pancreaticobiliary junction describes the abnormal junction of the pancreatic duct and common bile duct that occurs outside the duodenal wall to form a long common channel (> 15 mm). The anomalous junction is often associated with a choledochal cyst or a biliary tract carcinoma and...

Ansa pancreatica

The ansa pancreatica is a rare type of anatomical variation of the pancreatic duct. It is a communication between the main pancreatic duct (of Wirsung) and the accessory pancreatic duct (of Santorini). Recently, the ansa pancreatica has been considered as a predisposing factor in patients with i...

Ascaris-induced pancreatitis

Ascaris-induced pancreatitis is the most common form of parasite-induced pancreatitis. Epidemiology Ascariasis in parts of India is the second most common form of pancreatitis after gallstones 1. It is rare outside of endemic regions however. Clinical presentation The presentation will be si...

Ascites

Ascites (hydroperitoneum is a rare synonym) is defined as an abnormal amount of intraperitoneal fluid. Clinical presentation Patients with a large volume of ascites can present with abdominal distension (which may be painful), nausea, vomiting, dyspnea and peripheral edema 7,9. Pathology Asc...

Atoll sign (disambiguation)

The atoll sign in radiology can refer to: reverse halo sign: atoll sign in thoracic CT atoll sign in liver MRI: suggestive of an inflammatory hepatic adenoma

Atoll sign (liver MRI)

The atoll sign in hepatic imaging has been described when a liver lesion shows a peripheral rim of high T2 signal intensity with the center of the lesion appearing isointense to the background of non-cirrhotic liver on T2WI mimicking an atoll. It is considered a characteristic sign of an inflamm...

Atresia

Atresia refers to a situation where there is underdevelopment of a structure with very rudimentary remnant tissues. This contrasts with agenesis, in which there is no development of the structure at all. The term atresia is often used with hollow structures such as a bronchus or intestine. For...

Autoimmune hepatitis

Autoimmune hepatitis is a rare type of chronic hepatitis, currently classified as "type 1" or "type 2". It may eventually lead to cirrhosis. The role of imaging is primarily to exclude other diagnoses and evaluate for complications. Epidemiology It may occur in children or adults, but most pat...

Autoimmune pancreatitis (diagnostic criteria)

There are several sets of diagnostic criteria for autoimmune pancreatitis (AIP), with some overlap and contradictions. At the time of writing (July 2016), these are the most widely used sets of diagnostic criteria. Asian 2008 AIP diagnostic criteria both criteria I to be fulfilled one criter...

Autosplenectomy

Autosplenectomy denotes spontaneous infarction of the spleen with resulting hyposplenism. Epidemiology Autosplenectomy is most frequently encountered in patients with homozygous sickle cell disease, although it has also been reported in pneumococcal septicemia 1, and SLE 2. The demographics th...

Bacillary angiomatosis

Bacillary angiomatosis is an infective complication in those with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) 3. Amongst other widespread multi-organ manifestations, the infection causes skin lesions which can be similar to those of Kaposi sarcoma. Pathology Characterized by a non-neoplastic...

Balthazar score

The Balthazar score is a subscore within the CT severity index (CTSI) for grading of acute pancreatitis. The CTSI sums two scores: Balthazar score: grading of pancreatitis (A-E) grading the extent of pancreatic necrosis The Balthazar score was originally used alone, but the addition of a sc...

Beaver tail liver

Beaver tail liver, also known as a sliver of liver, is a variant of hepatic morphology where an elongated left liver lobe extends laterally to contact and often surround the spleen. It is more common in females. The parenchyma is normal and therefore has the same risks of hepatic pathology as th...

Benign liver tumors (pediatric)

Pediatric benign liver tumors are a relatively rare, but important group of conditions. Importantly, the commonest cause of a benign liver tumor is specific to the pediatric population. The list in descending order of frequency is: infantile hepatic hemangioma (previously hemangioendothelioma) ...

Benign tumors and tumor-like lesions of the gallbladder

The gallbladder and extrahepatic bile ducts play host to a surprisingly large number of benign tumors and tumor-like lesions which may be visible on imaging. In the gallbladder, most of them are detected incidentally, whereas in the bile ducts they are usually found in symptomatic patients (obst...

Benign vs malignant features of gallbladder polyps

In most instances predicting benign versus malignant histology of a gallbladder polyp based purely on imaging features is not possible. However, a number of features are helpful in helping to decide the management of a gallbladder polyp. Benign features size polyps that are less than 5 mm in...

Beta catenin mutated hepatic adenoma

Beta catenin mutated hepatic adenomas are a genetic and pathologic subtype of hepatic adenoma. Their appearance and prognosis are different than other subtypes. Epidemiology They are the least common subtype of hepatic adenoma (10-15%). They occur more frequently in men and are associated with...

Bile duct dilatation (differential)

Bile duct dilatation can be due to several etiologies. Clinical presentation Variable, depending on underlying cause, but usually: right upper quadrant pain jaundice Radiographic features Ultrasound Harmonic imaging is useful when assessing the biliary system, as it improves the clarity o...

Bile duct stricture

Bile duct strictures are problematic in terms of management and distinction between benign and malignant. Pathology Etiology There are numerous causes of biliary duct strictures, including 1,2 : malignant cholangiocarcinoma involvement by pancreatic head adenocarcinoma involvement by amp...

Bile duct wall thickening (differential)

Thickening of the bile duct wall can stem from a variety of etiologies. Radiographic features Ultrasound bile duct wall thickening bile duct walls are typically not visible when normal possible narrowing of the ducts with obstruction possible secondary signs of cholangitis, including debri...

Bile sump syndrome

Bile sump syndrome refers to a complication following a side-to-side choledochoduodenostomy. Epidemiology This complication occurs in ~1% of patients following a side-to-side choledochoduodenostomy. Clinical presentation Recurrent abdominal pain, cholangitis, pancreatitis, or biliary obstr...

Biliary ascariasis

Ascariasis is the commonest helminthic infection worldwide and estimated to affect nearly 1 billion people (25% of the population). The disease is transmitted by Ascaris lumbricoides which belongs to the nematode family (roundworms). Lifecycle Infection occurs by ingestion of contaminated food...

Biliary atresia

Biliary atresia (BA) is a congenital biliary disorder, which is characterized by an absence or severe deficiency of the extrahepatic biliary tree. It is one of the most common causes of neonatal cholestasis, often causing cirrhosis immediately and leading to death and accounts for over half of c...

Biliary cast syndrome

Biliary cast syndrome is a complication that occurs after liver transplantation, where dark solid bilirubin casts develop in the biliary tree, causing biliary obstruction. Terminology This should be differentiated from biliary sludge, which represents thickened bile that has not precipitated. ...

Biliary cystadenocarcinoma

Biliary cystadenocarcinomas are rare cystic hepatic neoplasms. They can be thought of as a malignant counterpart of biliary cystadenomas. Epidemiology There is recognized increased female predilection. Its incidence peak is around 60 years of age. Clinical presentation The clinical symptoms ...

Biliary cystadenoma

Biliary cystadenomas are uncommon benign cystic neoplasms of the liver. Epidemiology Biliary cystadenomas occur predominantly in middle-aged patients and are more common in women 1. Clinical presentation The clinical presentation of biliary cystadenomas is variable, depending on the size and...

Biliary intraepithelial neoplasia

Biliary intraepithelial neoplasia (BilIN) is considered to be a precursor lesion of cholangiocarcinoma, but the frequency at which this transition occurs is unknown. Terminology Before 2005, biliary atypia or biliary dysplasia were terms usually employed to refer to BilIN 5. Epidemiology T...

Biliary necrosis

Biliary necrosis refers to the death of the intra-hepatic bile ducts epithelium commonly seen as a complication of hepatic artery thrombosis. Pathology Different from the liver parenchyma that has dual supply, portal vein and hepatic artery, the intrahepatic biliary ducts are exclusively supp...

Biliary tree anatomy

Various channels that collect bile from the hepatic parenchyma and transport it to the duodenum constitute the biliary tree. Gross anatomy By convention the biliary tree is divided into intra- and extra-hepatic bile ducts 1. There is significant variation in the biliary tree with the classical...

Biloma

Bilomas refer to extrabiliary collections of bile. They can be either intra- or extrahepatic. Terminology There is a slight discrepancy in the reported literature in the use of the term "biloma". Many authors have used it exclusively to refer to intrahepatic bile collections or other bilious ...

Bismuth-Corlette classification

The Bismuth-Corlette classification is a classification system for perihilar cholangiocarcinomas, which is based on the extent of ductal infiltration. Classification type I limited to the common hepatic duct, below the level of the confluence of the right and left hepatic ducts type II in...

Bright dot sign (atypical liver hemangioma)

The bright dot sign refers to the presence of a bright dot within a lesion which remains hyperattenuating on arterial and portal venous phase CT, corresponding to early nodular enhancement seen on dynamic MRI of liver hemangioma. This can be used as an indicator that the lesion in question is ...

Budd-Chiari syndrome

Budd-Chiari syndrome, also known as hepatic venous outflow obstruction (HVOO), refers to the clinical picture that occurs when there is partial or complete obstruction of the hepatic veins. It is characterized on imaging by ascites, caudate hypertrophy, peripheral atrophy, and prominent collater...

Bulging duodenal papilla

Bulging duodenal papilla is a conical or cylindrical protuberance at the medial aspect of the descending or horizontal duodenum at the site of the sphincter of Oddi. It is a finding on small bowel follow-though (and endoscopy) and has a relatively long differential. On cross-sectional imaging, ...

Bunch of grapes sign (disambiguation)

Bunch of grapes sign refers to the ultrasound appearance of multiple cystic spaces or lesions and it has been described in a number of settings: within the uterus as a result of hydropic swelling of trophoblastic villi within a hydatidiform mole in bronchiectasis, where on a chest radiograph, ...

CA-125

CA-125 is a high-molecular-weight glycoprotein found on the surface of Mullerian and coelomic epithelial-derived cell types, and is the best known tumor marker for epithelial ovarian cancer 6. Importantly, it may also be elevated in several other conditions (see differential diagnosis section be...

CA 19-9

CA 19-9 (carbohydrate antigen 19-9 or cancer antigen 19-9) is a serum antigen (monosialoganglioside) that has increased diagnostic use in the management of several malignancies, mainly of hepatopancreaticobiliary origin. It is non-specific, however, and can rise in both malignant and non-maligna...

Calot triangle

Calot triangle or cystohepatic triangle is a small (potential) triangular space at the porta hepatis of surgical importance as it is dissected during cholecystectomy. Its contents, the cystic artery and cystic duct must be identified before ligation and division to avoid damaging them during the...

Caput medusae sign (developmental venous anomaly)

The caput medusae sign, refers to developmental venous anomalies of the brain, where a number of veins drain centrally towards a single drain vein. The appearance is reminiscent of Medusa, a gorgon of Greek mythology, who was encountered and defeated by Perseus. The sign is seen on both CT and ...

Caput medusae sign (portal hypertension)

The caput medusae sign is seen in patients with severe portal hypertension. It describes the appearance of distended and engorged paraumbilical veins, which are seen radiating from the umbilicus across the abdomen to join the systemic veins. History and etymology The appearance is reminiscent...

Carcinogens

Carcinogens are substances known to cause cancer. They include: Brain vinyl chloride Nasopharynx / nasal passage nickel wood dust chromium Thyroid ionizing radiation (not technically a substance) Skin arsenic coal tars polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) Lungs arsenic asbestos chloro...

Cardiac sclerosis

Cardiac sclerosis, or "cardiac cirrhosis" is the end-point of passive hepatic congestion from heart failure. Pathology Etiology Causes of cardiac cirrhosis include 1: ischemic heart disease: ~30% cardiomyopathy: ~25% valvular heart disease: ~25% restrictive lung disease: ~15% pericardia...

Caroli syndrome

Caroli disease and Caroli syndrome are congenital disorders comprising of multifocal cystic dilatation of segmental intrahepatic bile ducts. Caroli disease is limited to the dilatation of larger intrahepatic bile ducts, whereas Caroli syndrome describes the combination of small bile ducts dilata...

Caudate–right lobe ratio

Caudate-right lobe ratio (C/RL) is used in the assessment of livers, usually in the setting of cirrhosis, in which there is atrophy of the right lobe with hypertrophy of the caudate lobe. Method for measuring image: axial slice immediately below the bifurcation of the main portal vein line 1...

Cavernous transformation of the portal vein

Cavernous transformation of the portal vein (CTPV) is a sequela of portal vein thrombosis and is the replacement of the normal single channel portal vein with numerous tortuous venous channels. For a discussion of demographics and presentation, please refer to the article on portal vein thrombo...

CEA

Serum CEA (carcinoembryonic antigen) is a cell-adhesive glycoprotein that was discovered in colorectal cancer in 1965, and is hence one of the oldest and most used tumor markers. Its name derives from its normal expression in fetoembryonic liver, gut and pancreas tissue. Normal range of CEA is ...

Ceftriaxone-associated gallbladder pseudolithiasis

Ceftriaxone-associated gallbladder pseudolithiasis is a not uncommon complication of this common antibiotic, where a ceftriaxone-calcium precipitate forms gallbladder sludge. It appears more common in pediatric patients. Epidemiology In one series, 25% of pediatric patients developed gallbladd...

Charcot triad

Charcot triad is the finding of pyrexia, right upper quadrant pain and jaundice, and is a traditional clinical sign of acute cholangitis. A meta-analysis of 4288 patients in 16 studies found that the sensitivity of Charcot triad for acute cholangitis was poor (36.3%) with a much better specific...

Chemotherapy induced cholangitis

Chemotherapy induced cholangitis is caused when intra-arterial chemotherapy is introduced to treat liver metastases. This causes strictures of the common hepatic duct and main ducts, but spares distal and proximal (i.e. common bile duct and intrahepatic ducts). Radiographic features similar t...

Child-Pugh score

The Child-Pugh score is a scoring system to measure the severity of chronic liver disease inclusive of cirrhosis. The intention is to provide a system with which clinicians can objectively communicate about liver function. The score is composed from several categories: total bilirubin, μmol/l ...

Cholangiocarcinoma

Cholangiocarcinoma is a malignant tumor arising from cholangiocytes in the biliary tree. It tends to have a poor prognosis and high morbidity. It is the second most common primary hepatic tumor, with intrahepatic cholangiocarcinomas (ICCs) accounting for 10-20% of primary liver tumors. Epidemio...

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